Management Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Management Finance - Essay Example In the following parts of this paper, first features of ABC have been provided in which entire ABC process has been included. Subsequently, comparison relating to selling price and selling volume with absorption costing has been included. After this step, budgeting and planning, budgeting and control, budgeting and performance evaluation and budgeting and motivation parts have been given before the conclusion. Activity-Based Costing (ABC) refers to as â€Å"It is a technique which involves identification of cost with each cost-driving activity and making it the basis for apportionment/assignment of costs over different cost objects/jobs/products/customers/services† (Pandikumar, 2009, p. 414). The analysis of this definition further highlights that ABC is mainly based on three fundamental activities: cost identification, activities and apportionment basis. Fundamentally, ABC is based on a sequence of activities in which costing process is carried out. In the first step, the process of identifying the activities is carried out in which organizational activities are properly pointed out; in the second step, computation of the cost of each activity is conducted; in the last step, the process of identifying the activity cost driver takes place which concludes the entire sequence of ABC (Ryan, 2014). And the typical examples of cost activities are schedule production jobs, machine set up costs, number of orders and number of batches (Ryan, 2014). In addition, cost pool and cost activities are two different activities. In the cost pool, total attached costs are combined and the combined costs are further allocated to cost activities. However, before allocating costs to cost activities, identification of drivers is of paramount importance. In the Berry Ltd, the company has budgeted machine set up costs $280,000, material ordering costs ($316,000), machine running

Heavens Beauty Spa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Heavens Beauty Spa - Essay Example This project introduces the Heaven’s Beauty Spa, an establishment which will be providing lavish spa services at practical prices. The company will be located at Hackensack, New Jersey, which has a daily interchange of about 60,000 vehicles. (The Importance of Skin Care, 24 Oct. 2008), ‘While beauty may only be skin deep, people have placed an importance on looking young and healthy. Looking good seems to do wonders for confidence and self-esteem. But as the saying goes, beauty is more than skin deep. Skin is important for so many other reasons. It acts as a barrier between the organs and the outside world.’ Heaven’s Beauty Spa provides a cheaper opportunity for people to have their skins professionally treated. The company will be offering seven (7) types of massages, including the Heaven’s Beauty Spa signature massage, foot and hand paraffin, foot and hand spas, body scrubs, and facial services. The major goal of the establishment and its primary key to capturing the attention of its market-is its quality service at reasonable prices. There are incalculable numbers of spa services around New Jersey. Therefore, it is undeniable that Heaven’s Beauty Spa will be facing numerous competitors. The recognition and intensified examination of its competitors, as well as the needs of the market, however, can assist the Heaven’s Beauty Spa to formulate pricing policies and strategies to maximize its market share. This also tackles the promotional tools which will be utilized by Heaven’s Beauty Spa to communicate to its market. The dealings with fitness centers, sports clubs, and travel agencies are also part of the company plan to perk up the market allocation. The company’s major purpose is to be one of the top leisure establishments in New Jersey. It is set to be able to penetrate the middle class and class A markets. The establishment also aims to focus on providing first-rate services at inexpensive rates.  

Economic Analysis of Turkey for EU Membership

Economic Analysis of Turkey for EU Membership INTRODUCTION: The main purpose of this study is to provide an economic evaluation of Turkish economy in the context of requirements of The European Union which accepts new members with decisive criteria. Enlargement process of The European Union is complex issue and consists of several political and economic arguments. This study organized as follows. The first chapter of this study explains the past enlargement waves of The European Union which must be studied to comprehend the enlargement process of the European Union. Therefore, the first concept to explain is the methodology of the past enlargement waves. Each of these past enlargement waves had different characteristics. Economic factors and politic factors were the main arguments in these processes. Union accepted new countries sometimes in respect to their economic strength; however, sometimes political benefits were under consideration. Determinants of these factors were explained in the first chapter. The second chapter provides highlight points of Turkish economy and Turkish political agenda. It explains the historical background of Turkey-European Union relations in economic and political perspectives. There are two steps in this chapter. At the first step, political dimension of the relations between 1960 and 1999, and summits related to Turkey are examined. 1963 Ankara agreement, 1970 Additional protocol, 1987 membership application are explained in details. Changing political structure of Turkey after 1980 is also summarized. Afterwards, summits which are effective on Turkey are explained. Several political summits convened and important decisions were taken as the results of these summits. In 1993, Copenhagen Summit, accession criteria were determined which should be fulfilled by the candidate countries for the full membership to European Union, In 1999, Helsinki Summit declared Turkey as a candidate for membership of EU. Moreover, in some summits Turkey and its candidacy were negotiated. Second chapter explains important results of these summits in the perspective of Turkey. At the second part of second chapter economic situation of Turkey is evaluated between 1960-1999 in the context of relation with European Union. Turkish economy experienced several fluctuations in this period. Changing economic and political issues of Turkey describe unstable relationship between Turkey and European Union. After 1960, Turkey did not have stable economic and political environment. Many fluctuations were recorded in these years These case are explained in the second chapter. Finally, the third chapter examines important arguments after the acceptance of the candidacy of Turkey by European Union in 1999 Helsinki Summit. European Union determined several criteria for the full membership in 1993 Copenhagen summit. One of these criteria is related to economic conditions. Existence of a functioning market economy and capacity to cope with competitive pressures and market forces within the Union are the required conditions for fulfilling the economic Copenhagen criterion. In order to analyze these conditions several aspects of the Turkish economy is examined between 1999, acceptance of its candidacy, and 2004. Growth performance, public finance, government foreign debt, employment structure and unemployment, current account, inflation, exchange rate and monetary policy, trade relations with European Union constitute general framework about the required Copenhagen economic criteria. Moreover, comparisons of Turkeys case with 10 new members are added to each section. Additionally, Union determined four criteria for the convergence to European Monitory Union which are named as Maastricht criteria. In the relevant section, these criteria are explained by making comparisons with the new 10 members. 1) ENLARGEMENT PROCESS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION After second world war, there had been seen a transformation in the state and relations between some European countries. Bitter hostility and division were replaced by closer economic and political cooperation and integration. The economic devastation of the war was tied to replaced by the calm wind of the peace and by economic prosperity. A treaty was signed by six countries and it was named as European coal and steel community. Economic integration was confined to two sectors. 1( Dennis swan, European integration, The common market, European union and beyond) In six countries federalist views were dominant .these countries were: France, Germany, Italy, Holland,. Belgium and Luxemburg. There was a desire to establish agencies with some supranational powers. This caused to the setting up of the ECSC established by the Treaty of signed in 1654. The aim was to integrate the coal and steel industries of Germany, the heart of its war machine into an interdependent European industrial structure. By this processes it was tried to prevent wars between West European countries.2( Frank Mcdonald and Stephen Dearden, European economic integration) Afterwards, the European economic community and the European atomic energy community were founded by the treaty of Rome in 1957. These there entities were merged in 1965 when a common institutional structure to govern the work of these three agencies was established. This was called European community. The term European Union came Into common use in 1993 after the council of ministers renamed itself the council of the European union. This name stems from the Maastricht treaty which formed the term to encompass the variety of cooperation and integration work than was carried out by the current member stated, The Maastricht treaty formed three pillars, The E, justice and home affairs, foreign and security policy, and named the umbrella structure for these three pillars of EU. 3( Frank McDonald and Stephen deaden, EE integration) Background of the Union may be summarized as above. However, it should not be forgotten that from the beginning of the history of the community to the current days of the union, there has recorded many changes. European integration project was mostly economic at the begging; it gradually expanded to involve political and social aspects and specifications. 4( Muzaffer Dartan, The EU enlargement process and turkey.) After several years from the ECSC treaty, some countries started to apply to become a member of this cooperation/community/union and these applications continued as a current issue Some of them were accepted and the union enlarged with its new members. In this section, these enlargement periods are going to be studied. 1.1) First Enlargement Wave The first enlargement period consists of three members. These are United kingdom, Ireland and Denmark. It is intended to evaluate, first, United kingdom. UK kept itself away from the community according to its own desire which appeared after the second world war. However, after a while, UK politicians changed their mind. The reasons of the desire of UK for adhesion to the community may be roughly classified into two groups: Economic and political. Politically, it was clear that UK was no longer a world power of the first rank. This country had lost its old effectiveness in the world. At the economic side, on all the usual economic indicators, such as growth in trade, in GDP. In investment, in income the member countries of the European community were outperforming UK. UK attempted in 1961 to become a member of the European community. On 31 July 1961, Prime minister Harold Macmillan declared the desire of UK for membership to the community. In November of the same year, government declared a white paper. This paper was stating the intention of the government and also declaring the reasons of staying away from the community and also was declaring the end of this period. With this paper UK was accepting the 2nd and 3rd articles of the treaty of Rome. Moreover, this paper was expressing that UK was approving the abolishment of internal tariffs in terms of a common custom union, a common commercial policy, and a common agricultural policy. 5 ( Christopher Preston, Enlargement and Integration in the EU.) In fact this declaration might be counted as the acceptance of the general mentality of the community on the part of the UK. However, the process was not finishing with this statement and many other problems were occurring to UK`s desire of adhesion to the community by the Gaulle, president if France. By the defenses of De Gaulle, UK was rejected from the community twice in 1963 and also in 1967. However, this was not the end of UK`s attempts for joining the community. After the election in France, De Gaulle had lost the presidency. New president, Georges Pompidou was thinking different form the previous president. He believed that enlargement could strengthen the community. Afterwards, the commission revised its opinion about rejection of UK and in October 1969 recommended that negotiations should start with all four applications immediately. The new French government supported the application of UK to the community. After the developments the community started to the negotiations with the UK government in June 1970 in Brussels. However, with the start of negotiations there was seen that UK had a hard manner in the acquis of the community. Afterwards, community decided not to discuss acquis if the community with a country which desires to access to the community. This decision became a rule for the following enlargement negotiations. 6 (Irfan kaya ulger, Avrupa Birliginin abc si) In the fisrt enlargement period, economically wealthy countries became new members. However, this enlargement wave did not occur without any problem even though the premature structure of the community in comparison with the current structure. There may be stated several factors as the problematic areas; first, the economic crisis environment of the 1970s was effective during the first enlargement period of the community. Dollar shock, petroleum shock forced the countries of the community to follow protective policies and caused to remove the community from its aims. This issue became more problematic with the accession of the new countries. A second factor about problematic area was the comprehension of the slow processing of the communitys structure. This problem increased with the adhesion of the new members. Third factor was about the budget of the community. This was more important than the others. After the accession of UK, arguments had started about budget revenues and expend itures which were prepared according to the balance of the six country of the community. 7(IBID) After the negotiations and their completion, on 22 January 1972 the treaty of Brussels was signed. With this process, UK became a new member of the European community on 1 January 1973. Ireland and Denmark became new members of the community with the first enlargement period. Irish trade was expanding rapidly, especially with UK and economic growth increased at the end. It became essential for Ireland to join to EEC when UKs third application was finally accepted in 1973. 8 ( Larry Neal, The economics of the European union and the economics of Europe) The Irish application was submitted on 31 July 1961. Because of the effects of the UK`s problems whit the community, Irish application was influenced negatively. However, in line with the process of UK, negotiations with the community finished in January 1972. 9( Christopher Preston, enlargement and integration in the European union) At 2 October 1972, 63,5% of the public accepted the adhesion decision in the referendum. 10( Irfan kaya, avrupa birligi ansiklopedisi) Another country of the fist enlargement period was Denmark. On the same day the UK`s application Danish government declared its intention to apply for the membership. This countrys negotiations were broken down the collapse of the negotiations of UK in 1963. However, afterwards Denmark became a new member of the community with the other two countries of the same enlargement wave. 11( IBID) At 22 January 1972 Denmark, Ireland, Norway and UK signed the treaty which was making them members of EEC. Afterwards, in a referendum which was held at 26 September of the same year, the Norwegians decide not to join EU. 12 ( Philip Toddy, an historical introduction to the European union) 1.2. Second Enlargement Wave During the years 1974-1975, in Greece, Spain and Portugal, the military governments were collapsed and the relations between the European community and these three countries had moved to another dimension. The region, Mediterranean zone, and these three countries were possessing diverse and different features in comparison with the member countries of that period. In contrast to the former enlargement period, European community was confronted with three different candidates. The new candidates which were wounded by weak economic structure with high tensions of military and political securities and three democratic countries which acquired their democracy recently were constructing general view of the second enlargement period of the community. 13( Christopher Preston, Enlargement and Integration in the European Union) The implementation degree of acquis of the new applicant countries and the domestic interests sensitivity caused this enlargement period to occur with more strict and stronger conditions. Because the community was preparing itself to welcome new members whose economic conditions were not sufficient as the former ones, and also they had democracies which were suffered from the dictatorship recently. The commission of the European communities on 20 April 1978 stated in general consideration on the problems of enlargement of the positions of the new applicants as: â€Å"When Greece, Portugal and Spain, newly emerging as democratic states after a long period of dictatorship, asked to be admitted to the community, they were making a commitment which is primarily a political one. Their choice was significant, both reflecting the concern of these new democracies for their own consolidation and protection against the return of dictatorship and constituting an act of faith in a united Europe. In this respect, Greece completed this difficult period by passing through diverse stages. From the beginning of 1960s, application of Greece in June 1959 to the European community, un accordance with the article 238 of the Rome treaty, brought about two contrary questions which took up time on the agenda of the community. In case of Greek adhesion to the community, its political and economic effects started to be discussed. Also, European community had fears, and hopes about Greeces negative and positive political and economic effects on the community† 14( IBID) Briefly stating, by opening its gates to Greece the community was accepting a relatively different geography, which was far away from the countries accepted with the first enlargement wave in terms of economic and political dimensions. First enlargement wave was containing of closer new members economically and geographically and, in economic areas there were not huge differences with the new three members but this time Greek economy was not so brilliant and this was carrying new economic burdens, and also then problems of harmonization. In July 1961, the association agreement signed between the community and Greece. By this agreement, a customs union was established between two sides. Also, it was tried to determine the conditions of financial assistance and process of policy harmonization. And it is worthy to mention that, the signature of the association agreement had two meanings; Fist, to formalize the relations with a country which had not possibility for full membership. Second meaning was to fix a first step on the way to the full membership. It was understood from the article 72 of the Athens agreement that Greece was installed on the second group. Regarding on the conditions and decisions of the treaty, the restrictions on industrial products would be lifted during 22 years, nevertheless, tariffs and quotes would be abolished in a 12 year period except the goods manufactured in Greece. Familiar interpretations were valid in agriculture sectors. 15 ( IBID) At April 1967, Greece experienced a military coup. Afterwards, the community froze the interpretation of the Athens Agreement. 16 (IBID) After the collapse of military dictatorial, as soon as the previous governing model was coming back, the government desired to reactive the interrupted relations with the community. On the 1st of November 1974, the transition period started. By this process, it was estimated that full membership of Greece might be in year 1984. 17(Jean-Francois) But Greece didnt evaluate it sufficiently and after the reconstruction of the democratic regime, the negotiations with the community for the associate status had applied for the full membership without any delay. Karamanlis government applied in accordance with the article 75 in June 1975. However, before all, Greece would face some problems on the way of the full membership status. But in general sense the problem was political. Even though the Greek economy was not able to integrate smoothly with the community, Karamanlis was looking for a swift adhesion to the community. He was considering that adhesion to the community would reinforce the Greek democracy which was recently constructed.18(IBID) However, Greek candidacy was not welcomed with the excite in Brussels nor with the enthusiasm. Its economy was still weak an inadequate and underdeveloped for adapt itself to the common market. But the ‘nines were not incentive to the political aspects. 19( IBID) The response of the community to the Greeces possible membership was including some different and diverse manners. Germany and United Kingdom had stated more anxious replies in comparison with France. They were worried about the security problems which might occur in case of Greeces membership. The warmest response had received from France. President Valery dasting had formed close relations with karamanlis and actively supported the membership of Greece. 20 (Christopher Preston, Enlargement and integration in The European union) Commission declared its opinion on 28 January 1976, and accepted the start of the negotiations with ‘half-hearted, however, described a pre-accession period before a specific transitional period. Commission stated its decision because of the effects of three factors: ‘The European community did not desire to injure its relations with Turkey, and even in different time periods, for a second reason, it may be stated economic factors. In total, even though Greece economy had small effects on the community, structural weakness of the economy of Greece and especially the size of the agriculture population and non-sufficient industrial base would marking that important part of the resource transfers from European Communitys budget would go to Greece in case of its full membership. Finally, Commission declared its decision in that manner because of the possible full membership of Greece would made effects on decision making and policy development of the European community with an undesired form of community. In fact, this reason may be added for all members and community or union experience. It was a factor during the welcome period of any new member. As it might be predicted, Greek government answered with a great reaction to the commissions deci sion. Greek government was claiming that association agreement had to be substituted as a pre-accession period. Greek government had also respected that decision as a cause of the delay of the full membership.† 21(IBID) Council of ministers rejected the commissions opinion. Moreover, Karamanlis threatened the community with the withdrawal of the Greeces application and commenced to lobbying. In addition to these events, French government rejected the pre-accession period. Dutch and German foreign ministers declared commentaries in favor of the start of negotiations as soon as possible. Finally, on 9 February 1976, at the meeting of council, member states rejected the opinion of the commission and had been decided to ask for from coreper to prepare a negotiating mandate. Afterwards, it might start the negotiations.22(IBID) Even though its burdens, the full membership of Greece was worth its small size23(Jean-Franà §ois) according to the community. Accession negotiations took 34 months which was longer than the negotiations of the first enlargement period. Moreover, any of the member states were not so enthusiastic about the membership of Greece. Germany considered geopolitical stabilization issues in the eastern Mediterranean region more important than the economic problems of Greece. French, during this period, was more complex and changeable however, the desire to become a bridge between north Europe and south Europe cause it to approach to the membership of Greece more optimistic. UK was uncertain in this decision. 24(Christopher Preston, Enlargement and integration in the European union) The adhesion agreement was signed on 28 May 1979 and came into effect on 1 January 1981. Greece was a new member of the community. 1.3. Third Enlargement Wave Spain and Portugal were the adherents of the third enlargement wave of the European Community. However, one can not reveal that during this period the relations between EEC and these countries were improved too much. Main developments, in Portugal, with 1974 revolution, in Spain, after the death of Franco in 1975, were started to be recorded and the context of European integration commenced to change. Moreover, this enlargement proves, the third one, was carrying a different and critical importance. Briefly speaking, the Community, confronted with a historic shift in its balance to power by opening toward Eastern Europe which set off the founders of the community and its associates from north to a journey with new democratic neighbors Spain and Portugal named as integration with south Europe. Because of all these factors, this enlargement wave would testify the community whether it would be able become a stabilization factor in the region and to bring up pluralist political and economic structures and to catch economic diversifications with different countries which had differ ent economic stages around the region.25(IBID) Regarding the Spains relations with European economic community, a preferential agreement between the two sides is observed. Spain applied to the community, in 1962, for an association agreement. The objective was to construct an association which includes a full membership in future. European community replied two years later, in 1964, with a positive manner. The agreement was envisaging, as the first stage, 70% reduction of tariffs of EC on industrial goods of Spain and 40% on citrus fruit, also Spain decided to decline EC export tariffs up to 1977 throughout six stages. After the collapse of the dictatorial, in Spain, full membership became a current issue. On the other side, Portugal after The Hague Summit which tried to decide about the post-enlargement relations with EFTA countries, applied for association agreement in November 1970. The special relations agreement came into effect between the community and the remaining members of EFTA on 1 January 1973. Portugal was one of the states which would benefit from it. Elimination of all barriers on exports of the Portugal, even fir sensitive sectors, exc ept textiles, to the community by 1977 was the commercial facilities the agreement put forward. After the Free Trade Agreement signed in 1972, Portugal attempted for negotiations to reach an additional protocol in 1976. Consequently, in September 1976 Protocol signed about which the Portuguese government awarded afterwards that it was not the best choice for Portugal. They decided that the full membership was the â€Å"best long-term† and Prime Minister, Dr. Mario Soars applied to the community with a formal application when the date was 28 March 1977.26( IBID) New applicant caused different voices among the member states. The member countries globally were in favor of the adhesion of Spain. Northern countries awarded that the possibility of entering to the markets which were still closed. For instance, Italy welcomed, positively, access of the new two partners which would yield close benefits. France was particularly pleased because of opening of its boundaries to the Southeast.27(Jean-Francois Drevet) Also, the rich men club was not pleasant for the wealthy members of the community.28( European Documentation) As a consequence, two countries had applied for full membership by the consequences of resembling procedures, formerly, signature of the association of the association agreements, subsequently, applications for full membership which indicates and reveals an improved point for relations. Commission submitted its interpretation to the council for the start of the negotiations and its submission yielded for this wave of enlargement for Spain and Portugal in 1978. Commissions decision for Spain was affirmative and stated as follows: â€Å"It is useless to pretend, however, that Spains accession will pose no problem. Success implies that Spains economy should be integrated with the economy of the community without intolerable strains on either side. When the process of integration is complete, the community should emerge strengthened and not diluted.†(29 Christopher Preston) Commissions response which was submitted to the council in May 1978 had a positive approach for Portugal. Even though its economy was worse than Spain, it was easily understood that in case of its adhesion to the community its effects would be restricted. Portugueses GDP was 1% of total GDP of community. Therefore, Portugal was not carrying a huge burden on the community economically. However, its economy was not indicating a brilliant appearance. Because of this reason, commissions â€Å"opinion† for Portugal was built around the bearing of â€Å"structural weakness† before the accession period to the community. 30( IBID) Mentioned two economies made their biggest modifications with the EFC. Even though Spain was considered strong to overcome the adhesion shock it had still vulnerable industrial sectors and the regions which were on retard would have adaption problems. However, Portugal was evaluated more fragile than Spain. Many experts was worried about that Portugal could not overcome the adhesion shock. But, with all these, it was difficult to separate it from its neighbor, Spain. 31( Jean- Franà §ois) After the presentation of Portugals demand of accession, the negotiation commenced on 17 October 1978 and Spain applied for adhesion on 28 July 1977, afterwards the start if negotiations on 5 February 1979 were the processes of these two countries toward to the full membership. 32( Philippe Deloire) Adhesion agreements were signed on 12 June 1985 between the applicant countries and community. Spain and Portugal were new members on 1 January 1986. 1.4. Fourth Enlargement Wave It is worthy to state that the prospect that the rich EFTA countries would be net contributes to the EC budget was counted as one of the main attractions of this enlargement wave.33(Helen wallece and William wallece) Main point of the forth enlargement wave, which we may also name as EFTA enlargement, was that the a;; new members were from EFTA countries. Because of this, it is intended to make a brief summary of the relations between EFTA and EC, then, we want to examine three new members of the community respectively. Another point which deserves importance is the arguments of the period when these new members adhere to the community. This period was representing the post-transition period of the Community to a union. Union witnessed the single act in 1992, and also decided some new decisions in Maastricht at 1993 and united three different treaties coming from the past of the community. This process also made clear the faults of the union. These were some if the arguments which indicated easily the changing structure of the union. Relations between EC and EFTA commenced to rise at the beginnings of 1960s. And with the completion of the customs union of EC it had started searches for free trade agreement. This agreement was signed in 1972 and by 1977, it abolished all duties for the industrial goods. With time, because of some trade successes these abolishment of trade duties were carried to other areas.34( Christopher Preston) On 2 May 1992, old twelve members and six members of EFTA, Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Island and Lichtenstein whose population had reached nearly 380 million, signed the agreement which established European Economic Area (EEA). It would go into effect on 1 January 1994 without Swede which rejected it by referendum on 6 December. EEA was an association which was structured institutional degree. EEA was aiming to determine the rules of access to the single market and the rules of concurrence of the community. 35 (jean- luc sauron) The agreement constitutes EEA formed worlds biggest integrated area. This area comprised 18 countries in a single market with 380 million person, 30 percent of world GDP and 47 percent of world trade. 36( Theo Hiltiris) Nevertheless, with the candidacy of EFTA countries to European Union. EEA lost its importance and it turned towards to be a step towards European Union. Moreover, with the collapse of the Soviet Union neutrality of certain members, Sweden, Austria, Finland, Switzerland, changed. During this new enlargement period, the candidates which desire to be the new members of the union started to declare their candidacy. EFTAs loss of its old importance may be stated as the reasons of the going towards of the EFTA countries to candidacy. Austria was the first country that declared its candidacy. Its application date was 27 July 1989. After this, in 1 July 1991 Sweden, in 1 March 1992 Finland followed the same process. Switzerlands application date was recorded as 26 March 1992 and also Norways was 25 November 1992. Lisbon summit in June 1992 had a critical importance in sense of statement of some basic pillars of the future enlargements which were considered. EEA agreement constructed an accelerated period for the start of negotiations with EFTA countries. For Edinburgh summit in December 1992, it was asked for from the commission to prepare general negotiation framework. Commission responded to Swedish application in August 1992, to Finlands application in November 1992, to Norways application in March 1993. On 12 December 1992, Edinburgh summit confirmed the general framework of negotiations for enlargement. Council, in the beginning of 1993, accepted the start of the negotiations with Austria, Sweden, and Finland. Switzerland rejected the EEA agreement with a referendum on 6 December, and that was to say that this country was resigning from the candidacy. At the same time, this was a reasonable negotiation timetable because the new candidates had accepted approximately 60% of the acquis of t he Union. Afterwards, negotiations commenced under the presidency of Denmark in February 1993. 37 (Christopher) Union recorded its easiest negotiation period since it had experienced during that time. New three members position was really close to the acquis of the union. As a matter of fact, they were in a good and untroubled manner in terms of economic conditions compared with the second and third enlargement countries. Because of these they were able to adapt themselves to the acquis of the Union swifter. If it is necessary to express some details. Negotiation period of EFTA enlargement lasted 13 months. This time period was quite short for the completion of this proce Economic Analysis of Turkey for EU Membership Economic Analysis of Turkey for EU Membership INTRODUCTION: The main purpose of this study is to provide an economic evaluation of Turkish economy in the context of requirements of The European Union which accepts new members with decisive criteria. Enlargement process of The European Union is complex issue and consists of several political and economic arguments. This study organized as follows. The first chapter of this study explains the past enlargement waves of The European Union which must be studied to comprehend the enlargement process of the European Union. Therefore, the first concept to explain is the methodology of the past enlargement waves. Each of these past enlargement waves had different characteristics. Economic factors and politic factors were the main arguments in these processes. Union accepted new countries sometimes in respect to their economic strength; however, sometimes political benefits were under consideration. Determinants of these factors were explained in the first chapter. The second chapter provides highlight points of Turkish economy and Turkish political agenda. It explains the historical background of Turkey-European Union relations in economic and political perspectives. There are two steps in this chapter. At the first step, political dimension of the relations between 1960 and 1999, and summits related to Turkey are examined. 1963 Ankara agreement, 1970 Additional protocol, 1987 membership application are explained in details. Changing political structure of Turkey after 1980 is also summarized. Afterwards, summits which are effective on Turkey are explained. Several political summits convened and important decisions were taken as the results of these summits. In 1993, Copenhagen Summit, accession criteria were determined which should be fulfilled by the candidate countries for the full membership to European Union, In 1999, Helsinki Summit declared Turkey as a candidate for membership of EU. Moreover, in some summits Turkey and its candidacy were negotiated. Second chapter explains important results of these summits in the perspective of Turkey. At the second part of second chapter economic situation of Turkey is evaluated between 1960-1999 in the context of relation with European Union. Turkish economy experienced several fluctuations in this period. Changing economic and political issues of Turkey describe unstable relationship between Turkey and European Union. After 1960, Turkey did not have stable economic and political environment. Many fluctuations were recorded in these years These case are explained in the second chapter. Finally, the third chapter examines important arguments after the acceptance of the candidacy of Turkey by European Union in 1999 Helsinki Summit. European Union determined several criteria for the full membership in 1993 Copenhagen summit. One of these criteria is related to economic conditions. Existence of a functioning market economy and capacity to cope with competitive pressures and market forces within the Union are the required conditions for fulfilling the economic Copenhagen criterion. In order to analyze these conditions several aspects of the Turkish economy is examined between 1999, acceptance of its candidacy, and 2004. Growth performance, public finance, government foreign debt, employment structure and unemployment, current account, inflation, exchange rate and monetary policy, trade relations with European Union constitute general framework about the required Copenhagen economic criteria. Moreover, comparisons of Turkeys case with 10 new members are added to each section. Additionally, Union determined four criteria for the convergence to European Monitory Union which are named as Maastricht criteria. In the relevant section, these criteria are explained by making comparisons with the new 10 members. 1) ENLARGEMENT PROCESS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION After second world war, there had been seen a transformation in the state and relations between some European countries. Bitter hostility and division were replaced by closer economic and political cooperation and integration. The economic devastation of the war was tied to replaced by the calm wind of the peace and by economic prosperity. A treaty was signed by six countries and it was named as European coal and steel community. Economic integration was confined to two sectors. 1( Dennis swan, European integration, The common market, European union and beyond) In six countries federalist views were dominant .these countries were: France, Germany, Italy, Holland,. Belgium and Luxemburg. There was a desire to establish agencies with some supranational powers. This caused to the setting up of the ECSC established by the Treaty of signed in 1654. The aim was to integrate the coal and steel industries of Germany, the heart of its war machine into an interdependent European industrial structure. By this processes it was tried to prevent wars between West European countries.2( Frank Mcdonald and Stephen Dearden, European economic integration) Afterwards, the European economic community and the European atomic energy community were founded by the treaty of Rome in 1957. These there entities were merged in 1965 when a common institutional structure to govern the work of these three agencies was established. This was called European community. The term European Union came Into common use in 1993 after the council of ministers renamed itself the council of the European union. This name stems from the Maastricht treaty which formed the term to encompass the variety of cooperation and integration work than was carried out by the current member stated, The Maastricht treaty formed three pillars, The E, justice and home affairs, foreign and security policy, and named the umbrella structure for these three pillars of EU. 3( Frank McDonald and Stephen deaden, EE integration) Background of the Union may be summarized as above. However, it should not be forgotten that from the beginning of the history of the community to the current days of the union, there has recorded many changes. European integration project was mostly economic at the begging; it gradually expanded to involve political and social aspects and specifications. 4( Muzaffer Dartan, The EU enlargement process and turkey.) After several years from the ECSC treaty, some countries started to apply to become a member of this cooperation/community/union and these applications continued as a current issue Some of them were accepted and the union enlarged with its new members. In this section, these enlargement periods are going to be studied. 1.1) First Enlargement Wave The first enlargement period consists of three members. These are United kingdom, Ireland and Denmark. It is intended to evaluate, first, United kingdom. UK kept itself away from the community according to its own desire which appeared after the second world war. However, after a while, UK politicians changed their mind. The reasons of the desire of UK for adhesion to the community may be roughly classified into two groups: Economic and political. Politically, it was clear that UK was no longer a world power of the first rank. This country had lost its old effectiveness in the world. At the economic side, on all the usual economic indicators, such as growth in trade, in GDP. In investment, in income the member countries of the European community were outperforming UK. UK attempted in 1961 to become a member of the European community. On 31 July 1961, Prime minister Harold Macmillan declared the desire of UK for membership to the community. In November of the same year, government declared a white paper. This paper was stating the intention of the government and also declaring the reasons of staying away from the community and also was declaring the end of this period. With this paper UK was accepting the 2nd and 3rd articles of the treaty of Rome. Moreover, this paper was expressing that UK was approving the abolishment of internal tariffs in terms of a common custom union, a common commercial policy, and a common agricultural policy. 5 ( Christopher Preston, Enlargement and Integration in the EU.) In fact this declaration might be counted as the acceptance of the general mentality of the community on the part of the UK. However, the process was not finishing with this statement and many other problems were occurring to UK`s desire of adhesion to the community by the Gaulle, president if France. By the defenses of De Gaulle, UK was rejected from the community twice in 1963 and also in 1967. However, this was not the end of UK`s attempts for joining the community. After the election in France, De Gaulle had lost the presidency. New president, Georges Pompidou was thinking different form the previous president. He believed that enlargement could strengthen the community. Afterwards, the commission revised its opinion about rejection of UK and in October 1969 recommended that negotiations should start with all four applications immediately. The new French government supported the application of UK to the community. After the developments the community started to the negotiations with the UK government in June 1970 in Brussels. However, with the start of negotiations there was seen that UK had a hard manner in the acquis of the community. Afterwards, community decided not to discuss acquis if the community with a country which desires to access to the community. This decision became a rule for the following enlargement negotiations. 6 (Irfan kaya ulger, Avrupa Birliginin abc si) In the fisrt enlargement period, economically wealthy countries became new members. However, this enlargement wave did not occur without any problem even though the premature structure of the community in comparison with the current structure. There may be stated several factors as the problematic areas; first, the economic crisis environment of the 1970s was effective during the first enlargement period of the community. Dollar shock, petroleum shock forced the countries of the community to follow protective policies and caused to remove the community from its aims. This issue became more problematic with the accession of the new countries. A second factor about problematic area was the comprehension of the slow processing of the communitys structure. This problem increased with the adhesion of the new members. Third factor was about the budget of the community. This was more important than the others. After the accession of UK, arguments had started about budget revenues and expend itures which were prepared according to the balance of the six country of the community. 7(IBID) After the negotiations and their completion, on 22 January 1972 the treaty of Brussels was signed. With this process, UK became a new member of the European community on 1 January 1973. Ireland and Denmark became new members of the community with the first enlargement period. Irish trade was expanding rapidly, especially with UK and economic growth increased at the end. It became essential for Ireland to join to EEC when UKs third application was finally accepted in 1973. 8 ( Larry Neal, The economics of the European union and the economics of Europe) The Irish application was submitted on 31 July 1961. Because of the effects of the UK`s problems whit the community, Irish application was influenced negatively. However, in line with the process of UK, negotiations with the community finished in January 1972. 9( Christopher Preston, enlargement and integration in the European union) At 2 October 1972, 63,5% of the public accepted the adhesion decision in the referendum. 10( Irfan kaya, avrupa birligi ansiklopedisi) Another country of the fist enlargement period was Denmark. On the same day the UK`s application Danish government declared its intention to apply for the membership. This countrys negotiations were broken down the collapse of the negotiations of UK in 1963. However, afterwards Denmark became a new member of the community with the other two countries of the same enlargement wave. 11( IBID) At 22 January 1972 Denmark, Ireland, Norway and UK signed the treaty which was making them members of EEC. Afterwards, in a referendum which was held at 26 September of the same year, the Norwegians decide not to join EU. 12 ( Philip Toddy, an historical introduction to the European union) 1.2. Second Enlargement Wave During the years 1974-1975, in Greece, Spain and Portugal, the military governments were collapsed and the relations between the European community and these three countries had moved to another dimension. The region, Mediterranean zone, and these three countries were possessing diverse and different features in comparison with the member countries of that period. In contrast to the former enlargement period, European community was confronted with three different candidates. The new candidates which were wounded by weak economic structure with high tensions of military and political securities and three democratic countries which acquired their democracy recently were constructing general view of the second enlargement period of the community. 13( Christopher Preston, Enlargement and Integration in the European Union) The implementation degree of acquis of the new applicant countries and the domestic interests sensitivity caused this enlargement period to occur with more strict and stronger conditions. Because the community was preparing itself to welcome new members whose economic conditions were not sufficient as the former ones, and also they had democracies which were suffered from the dictatorship recently. The commission of the European communities on 20 April 1978 stated in general consideration on the problems of enlargement of the positions of the new applicants as: â€Å"When Greece, Portugal and Spain, newly emerging as democratic states after a long period of dictatorship, asked to be admitted to the community, they were making a commitment which is primarily a political one. Their choice was significant, both reflecting the concern of these new democracies for their own consolidation and protection against the return of dictatorship and constituting an act of faith in a united Europe. In this respect, Greece completed this difficult period by passing through diverse stages. From the beginning of 1960s, application of Greece in June 1959 to the European community, un accordance with the article 238 of the Rome treaty, brought about two contrary questions which took up time on the agenda of the community. In case of Greek adhesion to the community, its political and economic effects started to be discussed. Also, European community had fears, and hopes about Greeces negative and positive political and economic effects on the community† 14( IBID) Briefly stating, by opening its gates to Greece the community was accepting a relatively different geography, which was far away from the countries accepted with the first enlargement wave in terms of economic and political dimensions. First enlargement wave was containing of closer new members economically and geographically and, in economic areas there were not huge differences with the new three members but this time Greek economy was not so brilliant and this was carrying new economic burdens, and also then problems of harmonization. In July 1961, the association agreement signed between the community and Greece. By this agreement, a customs union was established between two sides. Also, it was tried to determine the conditions of financial assistance and process of policy harmonization. And it is worthy to mention that, the signature of the association agreement had two meanings; Fist, to formalize the relations with a country which had not possibility for full membership. Second meaning was to fix a first step on the way to the full membership. It was understood from the article 72 of the Athens agreement that Greece was installed on the second group. Regarding on the conditions and decisions of the treaty, the restrictions on industrial products would be lifted during 22 years, nevertheless, tariffs and quotes would be abolished in a 12 year period except the goods manufactured in Greece. Familiar interpretations were valid in agriculture sectors. 15 ( IBID) At April 1967, Greece experienced a military coup. Afterwards, the community froze the interpretation of the Athens Agreement. 16 (IBID) After the collapse of military dictatorial, as soon as the previous governing model was coming back, the government desired to reactive the interrupted relations with the community. On the 1st of November 1974, the transition period started. By this process, it was estimated that full membership of Greece might be in year 1984. 17(Jean-Francois) But Greece didnt evaluate it sufficiently and after the reconstruction of the democratic regime, the negotiations with the community for the associate status had applied for the full membership without any delay. Karamanlis government applied in accordance with the article 75 in June 1975. However, before all, Greece would face some problems on the way of the full membership status. But in general sense the problem was political. Even though the Greek economy was not able to integrate smoothly with the community, Karamanlis was looking for a swift adhesion to the community. He was considering that adhesion to the community would reinforce the Greek democracy which was recently constructed.18(IBID) However, Greek candidacy was not welcomed with the excite in Brussels nor with the enthusiasm. Its economy was still weak an inadequate and underdeveloped for adapt itself to the common market. But the ‘nines were not incentive to the political aspects. 19( IBID) The response of the community to the Greeces possible membership was including some different and diverse manners. Germany and United Kingdom had stated more anxious replies in comparison with France. They were worried about the security problems which might occur in case of Greeces membership. The warmest response had received from France. President Valery dasting had formed close relations with karamanlis and actively supported the membership of Greece. 20 (Christopher Preston, Enlargement and integration in The European union) Commission declared its opinion on 28 January 1976, and accepted the start of the negotiations with ‘half-hearted, however, described a pre-accession period before a specific transitional period. Commission stated its decision because of the effects of three factors: ‘The European community did not desire to injure its relations with Turkey, and even in different time periods, for a second reason, it may be stated economic factors. In total, even though Greece economy had small effects on the community, structural weakness of the economy of Greece and especially the size of the agriculture population and non-sufficient industrial base would marking that important part of the resource transfers from European Communitys budget would go to Greece in case of its full membership. Finally, Commission declared its decision in that manner because of the possible full membership of Greece would made effects on decision making and policy development of the European community with an undesired form of community. In fact, this reason may be added for all members and community or union experience. It was a factor during the welcome period of any new member. As it might be predicted, Greek government answered with a great reaction to the commissions deci sion. Greek government was claiming that association agreement had to be substituted as a pre-accession period. Greek government had also respected that decision as a cause of the delay of the full membership.† 21(IBID) Council of ministers rejected the commissions opinion. Moreover, Karamanlis threatened the community with the withdrawal of the Greeces application and commenced to lobbying. In addition to these events, French government rejected the pre-accession period. Dutch and German foreign ministers declared commentaries in favor of the start of negotiations as soon as possible. Finally, on 9 February 1976, at the meeting of council, member states rejected the opinion of the commission and had been decided to ask for from coreper to prepare a negotiating mandate. Afterwards, it might start the negotiations.22(IBID) Even though its burdens, the full membership of Greece was worth its small size23(Jean-Franà §ois) according to the community. Accession negotiations took 34 months which was longer than the negotiations of the first enlargement period. Moreover, any of the member states were not so enthusiastic about the membership of Greece. Germany considered geopolitical stabilization issues in the eastern Mediterranean region more important than the economic problems of Greece. French, during this period, was more complex and changeable however, the desire to become a bridge between north Europe and south Europe cause it to approach to the membership of Greece more optimistic. UK was uncertain in this decision. 24(Christopher Preston, Enlargement and integration in the European union) The adhesion agreement was signed on 28 May 1979 and came into effect on 1 January 1981. Greece was a new member of the community. 1.3. Third Enlargement Wave Spain and Portugal were the adherents of the third enlargement wave of the European Community. However, one can not reveal that during this period the relations between EEC and these countries were improved too much. Main developments, in Portugal, with 1974 revolution, in Spain, after the death of Franco in 1975, were started to be recorded and the context of European integration commenced to change. Moreover, this enlargement proves, the third one, was carrying a different and critical importance. Briefly speaking, the Community, confronted with a historic shift in its balance to power by opening toward Eastern Europe which set off the founders of the community and its associates from north to a journey with new democratic neighbors Spain and Portugal named as integration with south Europe. Because of all these factors, this enlargement wave would testify the community whether it would be able become a stabilization factor in the region and to bring up pluralist political and economic structures and to catch economic diversifications with different countries which had differ ent economic stages around the region.25(IBID) Regarding the Spains relations with European economic community, a preferential agreement between the two sides is observed. Spain applied to the community, in 1962, for an association agreement. The objective was to construct an association which includes a full membership in future. European community replied two years later, in 1964, with a positive manner. The agreement was envisaging, as the first stage, 70% reduction of tariffs of EC on industrial goods of Spain and 40% on citrus fruit, also Spain decided to decline EC export tariffs up to 1977 throughout six stages. After the collapse of the dictatorial, in Spain, full membership became a current issue. On the other side, Portugal after The Hague Summit which tried to decide about the post-enlargement relations with EFTA countries, applied for association agreement in November 1970. The special relations agreement came into effect between the community and the remaining members of EFTA on 1 January 1973. Portugal was one of the states which would benefit from it. Elimination of all barriers on exports of the Portugal, even fir sensitive sectors, exc ept textiles, to the community by 1977 was the commercial facilities the agreement put forward. After the Free Trade Agreement signed in 1972, Portugal attempted for negotiations to reach an additional protocol in 1976. Consequently, in September 1976 Protocol signed about which the Portuguese government awarded afterwards that it was not the best choice for Portugal. They decided that the full membership was the â€Å"best long-term† and Prime Minister, Dr. Mario Soars applied to the community with a formal application when the date was 28 March 1977.26( IBID) New applicant caused different voices among the member states. The member countries globally were in favor of the adhesion of Spain. Northern countries awarded that the possibility of entering to the markets which were still closed. For instance, Italy welcomed, positively, access of the new two partners which would yield close benefits. France was particularly pleased because of opening of its boundaries to the Southeast.27(Jean-Francois Drevet) Also, the rich men club was not pleasant for the wealthy members of the community.28( European Documentation) As a consequence, two countries had applied for full membership by the consequences of resembling procedures, formerly, signature of the association of the association agreements, subsequently, applications for full membership which indicates and reveals an improved point for relations. Commission submitted its interpretation to the council for the start of the negotiations and its submission yielded for this wave of enlargement for Spain and Portugal in 1978. Commissions decision for Spain was affirmative and stated as follows: â€Å"It is useless to pretend, however, that Spains accession will pose no problem. Success implies that Spains economy should be integrated with the economy of the community without intolerable strains on either side. When the process of integration is complete, the community should emerge strengthened and not diluted.†(29 Christopher Preston) Commissions response which was submitted to the council in May 1978 had a positive approach for Portugal. Even though its economy was worse than Spain, it was easily understood that in case of its adhesion to the community its effects would be restricted. Portugueses GDP was 1% of total GDP of community. Therefore, Portugal was not carrying a huge burden on the community economically. However, its economy was not indicating a brilliant appearance. Because of this reason, commissions â€Å"opinion† for Portugal was built around the bearing of â€Å"structural weakness† before the accession period to the community. 30( IBID) Mentioned two economies made their biggest modifications with the EFC. Even though Spain was considered strong to overcome the adhesion shock it had still vulnerable industrial sectors and the regions which were on retard would have adaption problems. However, Portugal was evaluated more fragile than Spain. Many experts was worried about that Portugal could not overcome the adhesion shock. But, with all these, it was difficult to separate it from its neighbor, Spain. 31( Jean- Franà §ois) After the presentation of Portugals demand of accession, the negotiation commenced on 17 October 1978 and Spain applied for adhesion on 28 July 1977, afterwards the start if negotiations on 5 February 1979 were the processes of these two countries toward to the full membership. 32( Philippe Deloire) Adhesion agreements were signed on 12 June 1985 between the applicant countries and community. Spain and Portugal were new members on 1 January 1986. 1.4. Fourth Enlargement Wave It is worthy to state that the prospect that the rich EFTA countries would be net contributes to the EC budget was counted as one of the main attractions of this enlargement wave.33(Helen wallece and William wallece) Main point of the forth enlargement wave, which we may also name as EFTA enlargement, was that the a;; new members were from EFTA countries. Because of this, it is intended to make a brief summary of the relations between EFTA and EC, then, we want to examine three new members of the community respectively. Another point which deserves importance is the arguments of the period when these new members adhere to the community. This period was representing the post-transition period of the Community to a union. Union witnessed the single act in 1992, and also decided some new decisions in Maastricht at 1993 and united three different treaties coming from the past of the community. This process also made clear the faults of the union. These were some if the arguments which indicated easily the changing structure of the union. Relations between EC and EFTA commenced to rise at the beginnings of 1960s. And with the completion of the customs union of EC it had started searches for free trade agreement. This agreement was signed in 1972 and by 1977, it abolished all duties for the industrial goods. With time, because of some trade successes these abolishment of trade duties were carried to other areas.34( Christopher Preston) On 2 May 1992, old twelve members and six members of EFTA, Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Island and Lichtenstein whose population had reached nearly 380 million, signed the agreement which established European Economic Area (EEA). It would go into effect on 1 January 1994 without Swede which rejected it by referendum on 6 December. EEA was an association which was structured institutional degree. EEA was aiming to determine the rules of access to the single market and the rules of concurrence of the community. 35 (jean- luc sauron) The agreement constitutes EEA formed worlds biggest integrated area. This area comprised 18 countries in a single market with 380 million person, 30 percent of world GDP and 47 percent of world trade. 36( Theo Hiltiris) Nevertheless, with the candidacy of EFTA countries to European Union. EEA lost its importance and it turned towards to be a step towards European Union. Moreover, with the collapse of the Soviet Union neutrality of certain members, Sweden, Austria, Finland, Switzerland, changed. During this new enlargement period, the candidates which desire to be the new members of the union started to declare their candidacy. EFTAs loss of its old importance may be stated as the reasons of the going towards of the EFTA countries to candidacy. Austria was the first country that declared its candidacy. Its application date was 27 July 1989. After this, in 1 July 1991 Sweden, in 1 March 1992 Finland followed the same process. Switzerlands application date was recorded as 26 March 1992 and also Norways was 25 November 1992. Lisbon summit in June 1992 had a critical importance in sense of statement of some basic pillars of the future enlargements which were considered. EEA agreement constructed an accelerated period for the start of negotiations with EFTA countries. For Edinburgh summit in December 1992, it was asked for from the commission to prepare general negotiation framework. Commission responded to Swedish application in August 1992, to Finlands application in November 1992, to Norways application in March 1993. On 12 December 1992, Edinburgh summit confirmed the general framework of negotiations for enlargement. Council, in the beginning of 1993, accepted the start of the negotiations with Austria, Sweden, and Finland. Switzerland rejected the EEA agreement with a referendum on 6 December, and that was to say that this country was resigning from the candidacy. At the same time, this was a reasonable negotiation timetable because the new candidates had accepted approximately 60% of the acquis of t he Union. Afterwards, negotiations commenced under the presidency of Denmark in February 1993. 37 (Christopher) Union recorded its easiest negotiation period since it had experienced during that time. New three members position was really close to the acquis of the union. As a matter of fact, they were in a good and untroubled manner in terms of economic conditions compared with the second and third enlargement countries. Because of these they were able to adapt themselves to the acquis of the Union swifter. If it is necessary to express some details. Negotiation period of EFTA enlargement lasted 13 months. This time period was quite short for the completion of this proce

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases Essays -- Climate Change Environme

Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases The concentration of the atmosphere's main greenhouse gases specifically, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, have increased significantly during the industrial age. These high concentrations are predicted to continue in the atmosphere for thousands of years to come. This increase in specially carbon dioxide, increases the infrared energy taken in by the atmosphere, and warming the earth's surface. The Global mean temperature over the past 150 years has risen between 0.3 degrees C and 0.6 degrees C. Climate changes that have been predicted are based on the continual rise in Green House Gases. These changes include changes in: increase in mean surface air temperature, increase in global mean rates of precipitation and evaporation, rising sea level, and changes in the biosphere. There are many causes to the rise in Green House Gases in the atmosphere. The rise in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is largely related to the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production (Hansen). The increase in methane is do to rice cultivation, animal husbandry, biomass burning, and landfills (Kattenberg). Nitrous oxide is on the rise because of industrial sources like adipic acid and nitric acid production (Kattenberg). Other gases not mentioned above that have a small impact on the Green House Gas proposed problem, is CFC-11 and CFC-12, these Gases are know to the public as being a big source of warming, although catalyzing decomposition of stratospheric ozone, they do not pose a great threat. Since the public was notified of these compounds in refrigerants, spray propellants, and foam blowing; the atmospheric concentrations have decreased greatly (Prather). .. ...the past 160,000 years." Nature, 345, 1990. Charlson, R. J. "Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols." Science 255, 1992. Douglas B. C. Global sea level rise, J. geophys. Res., 96 (C4), 6981-6992, 1991. Hansen, J. E. (1998). Climate forcings in the industrial era. Livermore: Willams Press. Kattenberg, A. (1996). Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krabill. W. "Rapid thinning of parts of the southern Greenland ice sheet." Science 283, 1999. Peixoto, J. P., and A. H. Oort (1992). Physics of Climate. New York: American Institute of Physics. Prather, M. P. "The ozone layer: The road not taken." Nature 381, 1996. Wang, W. C. "Inadequacy of affective CO2 as a proxy in simulating the greenhouse effect of other radiatively active gases." Nature 350, 1991.

Compare the representations of Frankenstein Essay

Compare the representations of Frankenstein in Branagh’s Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and the 1931 film Frankenstein directed by James Whale Language- 1931: Camera –   Close ups are not used on Frankenstein as Branagh wants people to wonder what he looks like. There are lots of pans to show the set and the people there.   There is a close up on the monsters hand when it is twitching. There aren’t many edits which makes it boring and not very interesting. Sound –   Diegetic sound is the machines, Frankenstein shouting, noise of the monster being taken up. Non-diegetic sound is the thunder; there is no music at all in the extract. Mise-en-scene –   Henry Frankenstein is wearing a lab coat/straight jacket, which gives the impression that he is crazy.   He has slicked back hair using hair oil.   The acting style is very over the top, like theatrical acting. Frankenstein is side lit, to make him look scared and horrified.   Overall the lighting is mostly by top lights and sometimes the lightening. 1994: Camera –   There are lots of frantic zooms, pans and also up and down shots, which makes the audience intimidated. The camera follows Frankenstein and shows his emotions/feelings.   The edits are very fast and unnoticeable, using cuts and jump cuts.   By making the editing quicker, this builds up the tension. Sound –   Diegetic sound are the chains, machines moving, bangs, slots into the body, the electricity sparks and also Frankenstein’s voice and movements.   Non – diegetic sound is the dramatic theme music, building up to create much more tension. Mise-en-scene –   Victor Frankenstein is dressed in trousers but with no top. However the monster is naked. Frankenstein’s hair is shoulder length, which is very messy and sweaty. The acting style is exciting and energetic but not mad.   Frankenstein is mainly lit on his upper body.   There are lots of side lights and candle light, however the room looks dark. Institutions – 1931:   In black and white.   Universal studios made the film, as they knew horror would be a big money spinner.   It was voted one of the best films of the year by New York Times. 1994:   It wasn’t as brand new as it was in 1931, as in 1994 many horror films had been out. The technology was much more advanced and a lot had changed from 1931, new ideas and there was a new effect on people. Audience – 1931: The big actor, Boris Karloff was used to attract the audiences.   People in 1931 were different to 1994, as it was all fresh and new to them.   Cinema was a get away for people.   Frankenstein was a big horror, and scared the audiences of its day.   The monster, which was thought as Frankenstein became a big horror icon, with a built up brow and a bolt through his neck. 1994: Kenneth Branagh and Robert de Niro were used to attract audiences. Horror films were the norm to people in 1994. They were a lot more sophisticated.   Money was much more wide-spread in 1994 but wasn’t as much in 1931. Representation – 1931: Frankenstein was dressed very much like a man in 1931.   His movements, delivery of the lines and his acting style is all over the top, like in the way of a theatre play. The light is normally based on the monster and when it’s on Frankenstein, the light would be on his upper body. The 1931 film changes Frankenstein’s name to Henry, rather than Victor The audience are supposed to react to Frankenstein in a scary way and that he comes across very mad. 1994:   Frankenstein dresses and looks very much like a man of the time that the novel was written.   His movements and acting style is energetic and exciting however doesn’t come across at all mad. The light is mainly based on Frankenstein’s upper body; the rest of the room is very dark.   The music interprets Frankenstein very well, as he is running around being busy. The music is a fast, dramatic orchestra. Frankenstein’s name stays the same as the novel, which is Victor.   The audience are supposed to think that Frankenstein is very involved with his work and wants to get it done to see the result.

Studying Fossil Fuels Use In Singapore Environmental Sciences Essay

Singapore is a little state with no natural resources, it is important to diversify the state ‘s energy beginnings so as to guarantee that this will non restrict Singapore ‘s economic fight and growing. Currently, the gas-fired power works generates 80 % of the state ‘s electricity and the staying 20 % coming from the oil-fired power works [ 1 ] . The Energy Market Authority ( EMA ) has predicted that there would be an increasing gas ingestion demand in the electricity sector [ 2 ] . Therefore, there is an increasing demand to look for other energy beginnings such as coal and liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) , and besides atomic energy in distant hereafter [ 1 ] . In add-on to happening the alternate energy beginnings, safeguarding the environment is besides an of import undertaking for the state. It is reported that electricity coevals histories for about half of the C dioxide ( CO ­Ã‚ ­2 ) emanation in Singapore [ 3 ] . Therefore, there is a demand to look for cleaner fuels in order to cut down C dioxide emanations so as to minimise its part to planetary heating. This paper will give an overview of the hazards, impacts, advantages, every bit good as the disadvantages of utilizing coal and LNG as alternate energy beginnings in Singapore. Coal Coal is a non-crystalline solid fuel which consists of chiefly C formed from the remains of organic affair under the Earth ‘s surface for 1000000s of old ages. It besides contains trace sums of sulfur, quicksilver and radioactive stuffs. Hazard and Impacts of Coal One of the hazards associated with the usage of coal as energy fuel is that coal degrades in reserves upon subjugation to weathering and atmospheric oxidization. This implies that the belongingss and constructions of stored coal can be altered and therefore, doing them less valuable for intended usage. Therefore, in order to keep the belongingss of the majority coal, big coal atoms with smaller surface-to-volume ratio are preferred since a smaller overall effectual surface country slows down the rate of debasement. However, larger coal atom size would ensue in more null infinite, taking up valuable storage infinite, bring forthing less energy per unit volume which leads to higher transit costs [ 4 ] . In the event that smaller coal atoms are employed alternatively, oxidation and debasement of coal would take topographic point at a faster rate due to increased effectual surface country. This may bespeak that coal is non suited for usage under Singapore ‘s clime of high humidness degrees which aggravate the coal debasement job. Coal has high oxidization affinity which could ensue in self-generated burning during storage [ 4 ] . Heat coevals can happen from the exothermal oxidization reaction, and wetting ( heat of wetting ) . While the rate of heat dissipation is slower than the rate of heat coevals, heat build-up occurs. This frequently leads to self-generated burning that may be hard to command one time a reserve gimmicks fire [ 4 ] . The issue affecting coal debasement is that dust atoms would be released when the coal is exposed to environment [ 4 ] . The production of all right atoms would degrade air quality and can trip societal wellness concerns, particularly when inter-building distance is smaller in Singapore. It would decline the wellness conditions of people who are enduring from lungs- and eye-related wellness jobs. Having assessed the hazards affecting the usage of coal, the impacts associated are besides analyzed. If stored in unfastened reserves, the coal is non merely subjected to weave eroding which will increase particulate pollutants in the air, but besides rains that are frequent in Singapore ‘s clime that will do coal pile overflow. The H2O oozing through the hemorrhoids would fade out or leach heavy metals and toxic organic substances within, and finally travel into the belowground H2O, which may do its manner to reservoirs and H2O catchments. Contaminated H2O can do farther societal wellness jobs and would be damaging to marine aquatic life. Besides the issue related to char storage, combustion of coal can take to serious environmental jobs. 20 % of the planetary nursery gas emanations emitted are the consequence of coal firing [ 5 ] . In United States entirely, 51.6 metric tons of quicksilver were released into the air yearly from coal power Stationss [ 6 ] . It will be expected that more quicksilver is released if Singapore increases her use of coal. Mercury is toxic and poses a menace to both human species and marine beings. Accretion of quicksilver in the organic structure can do harm to encephalon and kidneys. Singapore has ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2006, which has ordinances on emanations and in consequence, punishments have to be paid for emanations [ 5 ] . This would be a great impact when Singapore adopts coal power because it has significantly more emanations compared to oil and gas. Punishments for CO2 emanation are expected to increase over clip due to more rigorous controls in topographic point, and would likely do coal power less attractive as an alternate fuel for energy variegation. Advantages of Coal Due to the high handiness of coal, the cost of coal is low compared to natural gas or crude oil. Based on research carried out by Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , the cost of coal is ~ $ 1-2 per million BTU, compared to $ 6-12 per million BTU for natural gas or crude oil [ 7 ] . Therefore, the usage of coal enables a lower capital investing in the natural stuff. Greater nest eggs from procurance of low-priced natural stuff enables better flexibleness in investing for pollution control in cut downing CO2 emanation. Coal militias could last much longer than gas and oil. In order to enable Singapore to prolong long-run energy demands, a dependable supply of fuel is a cardinal consideration. Harmonizing to probes carried out, the ratio of the militias to production rate ( based on the current ingestion tendencies ) has revealed that coal could last for another 155 old ages, which is much longer than in the instance of oil and gas ( 40 and 65 old ages severally ) [ 6 ] . Si ngapore can see coal as one of its option in energy beginnings variegation since the low cost and durable supply of coal render it attractive, and therefore makes Singapore economically more competitory [ 8 ] . Coal is a major beginning of energy in many states like China, US, and India. As the supply will non run out in the close hereafter, researches are proactive to develop advanced clean coal engineerings, including gasification and liquefaction for C dioxide gaining control and storage [ 7 ] . Furthermore, the lifting costs of oil and gas as a consequence of depleting beginnings would force the development of such engineerings at a faster rate, doing coal power emanations comparable to oil and gas power. China as the universe largest coal consumer would unlikely halt the use of coal. Alternatively of change overing to alternative cleaner fuels that may incur substructure costs while decelerating down its advancement, research on advanced methods for continual use of coal at a much lower emanation would be developed by them. With new methods being developed, coal power emanations would be of all time diminishing along the clip line [ 7 ] . For case, CO2 Capture and Storage ( CCS ) which is presently in development is expected to do coal power a feasible power option with an expected 20-60 % addition in usage compared to today ‘s degree. With CCS, CO2 emanations from firing coal can be reduced to merely half to a 3rd of the sum of emanations today, which makes it comparable to CO2 emanations from burning of gas and oil at present times [ 7 ] . Disadvantages of Coal Despite the fact that coal is lower in cost, the comparative energy content per unit weight is low excessively [ 4 ] . Sing two indistinguishable trucks transporting the same volume of coal and crude oil, the truck transporting crude oil gives higher energy output content. Consequently, higher cost is incurred in the transit of coal. Currently, H2O conveyance offers a lower cost alternate to railway, but there is an increasing ordinance on fuel for Marine conveyance, which will further increase cost of coal transit. Stocking of coal requires stock heap direction, which would likely be much more strict than anyplace else as land is scarce in this state [ 5 ] . Coal storage is comparatively land area-intensive. Other considerations include the clime of Singapore, which rains are expected to happen often, unfastened hemorrhoids are improbable to be considered. Storage in enclosed silos or sand traps would, nevertheless, incur higher capital costs and can restrict enlargement capablenesss. Gas fired power workss emit 70 % lesser CO2 per unit of electrical end product, and petroleum-based systems emit 50 % lesser CO2 than coal-burning power [ 7 ] . LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS ( LNG ) Liquefied natural gas is natural gas that undergoes liquefaction and it consists chiefly of methane. During the procedure of liquefaction, drosss like H2O, N, C dioxide, H sulphide and other S compounds are removed. The beginnings of gas are well-diversified. Soon, the type of natural gas used in Singapore is the Piped Natural Gas ( PNG ) obtained from Indonesia and Malaysia. Singapore considers LNG as an alternate energy beginning as it starts the building of the liquified natural gas terminus in Jurong Island, so as to purchase gas from Qatar, every bit good as other possible LNG providers such as Australia and Oman [ 2 ] . Hazards and Impacts of LNG The hazards involved in LNG prevarication in its containment and handling. Under ambient temperature and force per unit area, natural gas in its liquid signifier occupies 1/600th times the volume of its tantamount gas signifier. If LNG were to get away into the ambiance, it will zap rapidly taking to the undermentioned jeopardies: ( 1 ) formation of a gas cloud with many times the volume of associated LNG which may attach to with hazards such as fire or detonation ; ( 2 ) terrible brickle break harm to reaching stuffs such as C and low metal steel constructions at cryogenic temperature ; ( 3 ) terrible hurt to personnel coming into contact with the cryogenic stuff [ 9 ] . The release of LNG would non ensue in fire unless it is exposed to an ignition beginning when its volume in air is between 5 % and 15 % [ 10 ] . If this happens in or near to residential part, the abodes who face the fire would have thermic radiation harm. In instance if LNG escape were to go on in the cloaca systems, it would bring forth flammable bluess that would detonate under parturiency and doing farther harm [ 9 ] . In add-on, vaporized LNG can do suffocation when released into a confined country as O concentration is reduced. During the transit of LNG, oilers are comparatively vulnerable to transgress by hit with heavy supplanting ships even if at the most moderate velocities. Such incidents are likely to happen within port where heavy supplanting ships and LNG oilers portion the same operating environment. In add-on, spillage can happen when LNG oiler travels through difficult point obstructors ( for case, concrete hemorrhoids and stone pinnacles ) . Upon impact, terrible harm to the bottom construction of the LNG oiler could ensue in interior hull incursion. Nevertheless, hazard of major spillage can be greatly reduced the two-base hit hulled design [ 9 ] . Singapore ‘s displacement in accent to LNG has raised the concerns of general public with respects to the storage and transit of LNG, particularly after some efforts of onslaughts by terrorists. However, for the same ground stated under hazard of loss in containment of LNG, pure methane will non light in the presence of an explosive charge without premixing with the right proportions of air. In instance of terrorist onslaught, the likely consequence on LNG installations would be a big pool fire alternatively of an detonation. Hence, LNG armored combat vehicles and oilers are non attractive marks for terrorists who seek to execute monolithic devastation to population lives [ 11 ] . Advantages of LNG Singapore depends on natural gas and crude oil as its chief beginnings of energy supply, which makes these options vulnerable to monetary value fluctuation and supply break. Therefore, LNG offers the chance of significant variegation off from current fuel supplies, enabling Singapore to keep its security of supply while maintaining electricity costs every bit low as possible to maintain concern and consumer costs down. The providers of LNG are good diversified as identified earlier. Hence, LNG may easy be available in copiousness. Even though LNG is a non-renewable resource, its supply worldwide is sufficient to run into the demands of Singapore for the following two decennaries, harmonizing to EMA [ 12 ] . Compared to other fossil fuels, LNG is considered as an environmentally-friendlier and cleaner fuel. LNG contains about wholly methane and no other drosss such as metals, sulfur and N since the liquefaction procedure has removed such drosss from natural gas to forestall solids formation as the gas is refrigerated. As such, LNG burning will surely ensue in less air pollution and lower C dioxide and azotic oxide emanation every bit good as atom emanations. In add-on, the emanations of sulfur dioxide are besides negligible compared to char and oil. Hence, the usage of LNG will assist to cut down jobs of acerb rain and nursery consequence. Due to the high volatility of LNG, it will non blend with H2O or dirt in instance of spillage on H2O or land. Alternatively, it will vaporize and disperse rapidly into the air without any residues. Water and land pollutions are therefore avoided. In footings of flammability, LNG has higher flammability bound ( 5 % ) compared to other fuels like Liquefied Petroleum Gas ( LPG ) ( 2.1 % ) or gasolene ( 1.3 % ) . This implies that for a given volume, more LNG bluess are required to light. Besides, LNG vapour has the highest autoignition temperature ( 1004 oF ) compared to other liquid fuels like LPG ( 850-950oF ) , gasolene ( 495 oF ) and diesel fuel ( about 600oF ) . Since LNG occupies 600 times less infinite than natural gas at ambient conditions, less storage infinite is required. It is besides easier to transport LNG though grapevines than natural gas. In footings of energy coevals, LNG has high net energy output. Hence, the usage of LNG will give higher efficiency compared to oil in power works. Disadvantages of LNG Although LNG is considered as a cleansing agent fuel, it besides contributes to planetary heating to a little extent. Methane, which is the chief component in LNG, is besides a nursery gas which will increase the methane degree in the ambiance if released. In tropical part like Singapore, one definite challenge is to maintain LNG as liquid. This could imply a important sum of energy ingestion to take down the temperatures of the LNG armored combat vehicles [ 13 ] . In order to keep LNG as liquid without excessively much chilling, expensive substructure is required for LNG storage and transit [ 11 ] . Economically, the operations of LNG are capital intensive due to big sum of disbursals needed for the building of liquefaction installations, transit grapevines and purchase of specially designed oilers and LNG ship. High transit cost of LNG from other states to Singapore constitutes portion of the cost excessively. Furthermore, being the lone receiving and regasification terminus in Singapore, the LNG terminus may monopolise LNG supply. In other words, the users may hold to bear higher monetary values. Even though LNG oilers and installations are less likely marks for terrorists, any successful onslaught could ensue in loss of substructures that are highly valuable. Therefore, seashore guards are needed to guarantee the safety and security of the LNG oilers. By beef uping security along coastlines and port installations, Acts of the Apostless of terrorist act and incidents can be prevented. However, while guaranting larboard security is indispensable, transportation paths are every bit vulnerable. If any incidents or onslaughts were to happen in the center of a sound, LNG supplies and all other flows of trade via the same transition would be disrupted. Decision Coal is the cheaper signifier of energy that is besides extremely abundant. It could, nevertheless, degrade when exposed to oxygen, ensuing in it being a hapless quality fuel. Due to take down energy content per unit volume, coal would take up big storage infinites in land-scarce Singapore. Environmental pollution could originate from the release of coal dust which is a menace to public ‘s wellness. Heavy metals and other drosss found in coal are harmful pollutants that are likely to be released upon debasement. However, development of new clean-coal engineerings can be expected from big coal consumers such as China, US and India. Like coal, Liquefied Natural Gas ( LNG ) will help Singapore in get bying with the demand in electricity as a cleansing agent and abundant signifier of fuel. The monopolization of LNG terminus in Singapore could, nevertheless, unfavorably consequence in consumers paying higher monetary value for LNG fuel. The storage infinite for LNG is much smaller than natural gas, which fits good for Singapore whereby land is scarce. When assorted in 5 % to 15 % with air, LNG will light upon exposure to an ignition beginning. Most of all, LNG is a much cleansing agent and efficient signifier of energy compared to other fuels and burn with minimum atom residues and environmental pollution. The hazards associated with the handling of coal and LNG can be minimized by following with industrial criterions and ordinances. While the clime of Singapore disfavours the storage of both coal and LNG, the scheme for energy variegation utilizing these two options shall render our energy system resilient for the following 20 old ages.